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(*^ ::[paletteColors = 256; useSolids; showRuler; magnification = 125; currentKernel; fontset = title, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, cellOutline, groupLikeTitle, center, M7, R65535, L1, e8, 24, "CalcMath"; ; fontset = subtitle, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, groupLikeTitle, center, M7, bold, L1, e6, 18, "CalcMath"; ; fontset = subsubtitle, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, groupLikeTitle, center, M7, bold, L1, e6, 18, "CalcMath"; ; fontset = section, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, groupLikeSection, grayBox, M22, bold, L1, a20, 18, "CalcMath"; ; fontset = subsection, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, groupLikeSection, blackBox, M19, R32767, B32767, L1, a15, 16, "CalcMath"; ; fontset = subsubsection, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, groupLikeSection, whiteBox, M18, L1, a12, 14, "CalcMath"; ; fontset = text, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, B65535, L1, 14, "CalcMath"; ; fontset = smalltext, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 14, "CalcMath"; ; fontset = input, nowordwrap, preserveAspect, groupLikeInput, M42, N23, bold, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = output, output, inactive, nowordwrap, preserveAspect, groupLikeOutput, M42, N23, L-5, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = message, inactive, preserveAspect, groupLikeOutput, M42, N23, R65535, B65535, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = print, inactive, nowordwrap, preserveAspect, groupLikeOutput, M42, N23, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = info, inactive, nowordwrap, preserveAspect, groupLikeOutput, M42, N23, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = postscript, PostScript, formatAsPostScript, output, inactive, nowordwrap, preserveAspect, groupLikeGraphics, M7, l34, w248, h323, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = name, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, italic, L1, 10, "Times"; ; fontset = header, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12; fontset = Left Header, nohscroll, cellOutline, 12; fontset = footer, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, center, M7, L1, 12; fontset = Left Footer, cellOutline, blackBox, 12; fontset = help, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 10, "Times"; ; fontset = clipboard, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12; fontset = completions, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = special1, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, whiteBox, M7, B65535, L1, 14, "CalcMath"; ; fontset = special2, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, center, M7, R32767, B32767, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = special3, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, right, M7, bold, L1, 12, "CalcMath"; ; fontset = special4, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, bold, italic, L1, 12, "CalcMath"; ; fontset = special5, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, italic, L1, 12, "CalcMath"; ; next21StandardFontEncoding; ] :[font = title; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Calculus&Mathematica :[font = subtitle; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Bill Davis, Horacio Porta and Jerry Uhl :[font = special2; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Technical Crew: Don Brown in California Alan DeGuzman, Justin Gallivan and David Wiltz in Illinois and Corey Mutter in Ohio :[font = special2; inactive; preserveAspect; ] ªCopyright 1992 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,Inc. The rights to all modifications are assigned to Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc. ;[s] 2:0,0;1,1;145,-1; 2:1,0,0,Symbol,0,12,32735,0,32735;1,10,8,Courier,0,12,32735,0,32735; :[font = section; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Initialization :[font = input; initialization; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] *) Off[General::spell1]; Off[Plot::plnr]; (* :[font = title; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Area and the integral :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] PrintForm and edited June 9, 1990 Correction: Jun 14 Acorns out Edited Jul 8, 1991 Filtered Oct 28, 1991 (Davis) Newest CalcMath Font, Columbus, December 1991 :[font = section; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Guide :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Area measurements are as old as humankind's instinct for controlling territory. The orgins of the integral as an attempt to measure area go back as far as written history goes. The early civilizations in China, Egypt, India and Mesopotamia all dealt with area measurements and in so doing ran into trouble handling `. The ancient Greeks, largely through the brilliance of Archimedes, made spectacular strides. Newton and Leibniz brought us the area measurements we are going to study here. In other courses, you will study more recent contributions made by Cauchy, Riemann and Lebesgue to this mother lode of mathematical knowledge. :[font = section; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Basics :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] B.1) Integral and area. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] B.1.a) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] What is the integral and how is it related to area? :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] What a beautiful question! The integral is related to area because it is nothing more or less than a tool to measure area. Here is how it works: Take a function y = f[˚x˚] and plot it on an interval [˚˚a,˚˚˚b˚]˚. It might look something like this: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] SetOptions[Plot,AspectRatio->Automatic]; Clear[f,q] f[x_]=x^2/(1+x^2); q[x_]= ExpandAll[(2.3+2.5Cos[2x]f[Cos[0.8x]])Sin[x+Sin[0.8x]]+1.85Exp[-(7.85-x)^2]]; a=0.5; b=10.5; x1=x/.FindRoot[q[x]==0,{x,2}]; x2=x/.FindRoot[q[x]==0,{x,7}]; x3=x/.FindRoot[q[x]==0,{x,9}]; graph=Plot[q[x],{x,a,b}, PlotRange->{{a-1,b+1},All}, Ticks->{{},{}},AxesOrigin->{0,0}, PlotPoints->50,DisplayFunction->Identity]; labels = Graphics[{ Text["a",{a,-.3}], Text["b",{b,+.3}], Text["y = f[x]",{a+3,2}]}]; Show[graph,labels,DisplayFunction->$DisplayFunction]; :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] We want to measure the area between the graph of y = f˚[˚x˚] and the x-axis: :[font = input; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] rad=0.4 colordisks=GrayLevel[0.85]; center1:={(1.5 a+x1)/2.5,q[(a+x1)/2]/2}; radius1:=rad; circle1:=Graphics[{colordisks,Disk[center1,radius1]}]; center2:={(x1+3 x2)/4,q[(x1+3 x2)/4]/2}; radius2:=rad; circle2:=Graphics[{colordisks,Disk[center2,radius2]}]; center3:={(x2+x3)/2,q[(x2+x3)/2]/2}; radius3:=rad; circle3:=Graphics[{colordisks,Disk[center3,radius3]}]; center4:={(1.5 b+x3)/2.5,q[(1.5 b+x3)/2.5]/2}; radius4:=radius; circle4:=Graphics[{colordisks,Disk[center4,radius4]}]; oncurve=Table[{t,q[t]},{t,a,b,.1}]; Clear[vertices]; curveplusright=Join[oncurve,{{b,q[b]},{b,0}}]; vertices=PrependTo[curveplusright,{a,0}]; shade=Graphics[{GrayLevel[.75],Polygon[vertices]}]; shadeColor=Graphics[{RGBColor[.75,0.75,1],Polygon[vertices]}]; dots=Graphics[{PointSize[.02], Point/@{{a,0},{x1,0},{x2,0},{x3,0},{b,0}}}]; line=Graphics[Line[{{a,0},{b,0}}]]; Clear[cross,thick] cross[{a_,b_},radius_,thick_]:= Polygon[ { {a+radius,b+thick radius}, {a+thick radius,b+thick radius}, {a+thick radius,b+ radius}, {a-thick radius,b+ radius}, {a-thick radius,b+ thick radius}, {a- radius,b+ thick radius}, {a- radius,b- thick radius}, {a- thick radius,b- thick radius}, {a- thick radius,b- radius}, {a+ thick radius,b- radius}, {a+ thick radius,b- thick radius}, {a+ radius,b- thick radius}}] Clear[dash]; dash[{a_,b_},radius_,thick_]:= Polygon[ { {a+radius,b+thick radius}, {a- radius,b+ thick radius}, {a- radius,b- thick radius}, {a+ radius,b- thick radius}}]; plus[{a_,b_},radius_,thick_]:=Graphics[{ RGBColor[1,1,1], Disk[{a,b},1.4 radius], RGBColor[0,0,0], cross[{a,b},radius,thick]}]; minus[{a_,b_},radius_,thick_]:=Graphics[{ RGBColor[1,1,1], Disk[{a,b},1.4 radius], RGBColor[0,0,0], dash[{a,b},radius,thick]}]; signs1:={plus[center1,0.3,0.15], minus[center2,0.3,0.15], plus[center3,0.3,0.15], minus[center4,0.3,0.15] }; Show[shade,graph,line,labels, DisplayFunction->$DisplayFunction]; :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 0; pictureWidth = 465; pictureHeight = 280; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.45589 MathPictureStart /Courier findfont 10 scalefont setfont % Scaling calculations 0.041667 0.083333 0.203362 0.083333 [ [ 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If a part lies below the x-axis, we consider it as negative. This gives the signs as shown below: :[font = input; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Show[shade,graph,line,signs1,labels, DisplayFunction->$DisplayFunction]; :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 8; pictureTop = 7; pictureWidth = 273; pictureHeight = 124; endGroup; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.45589 MathPictureStart % Scaling calculations 0.04167 0.08333 0.20336 0.08333 [ [ -0.001 -0.001 0 0 ] [ 1.001 0.45689 0 0 ] ] MathScale % Start of Graphics 1 setlinecap 1 setlinejoin newpath %%Object: Graphics [ ] 0 setdash 0 setgray gsave gsave 0.002 setlinewidth 0 0.20336 moveto 1 0.20336 lineto stroke 0.04167 0 moveto 0.04167 0.45589 lineto stroke grestore grestore 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto 1 0.455887 lineto 0 0.455887 lineto closepath clip newpath 0 setgray gsave gsave gsave 0.75 setgray 0.08333 0.20336 moveto 0.08333 0.39236 lineto 0.09167 0.39976 lineto 0.1 0.39803 lineto 0.10833 0.3898 lineto 0.11667 0.37792 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lineto 0.5 0.0148 lineto 0.50833 0.01125 lineto 0.51667 0.01136 lineto 0.525 0.01417 lineto 0.53333 0.01849 lineto 0.54167 0.02353 lineto 0.55 0.02931 lineto 0.55833 0.03687 lineto 0.56667 0.04801 lineto 0.575 0.06476 lineto 0.58333 0.08872 lineto 0.59167 0.12047 lineto 0.6 0.15934 lineto 0.60833 0.20341 lineto 0.61667 0.24988 lineto 0.625 0.29551 lineto 0.63333 0.33723 lineto 0.64167 0.37266 lineto 0.65 0.40042 lineto 0.65833 0.42027 lineto 0.66667 0.43305 lineto 0.675 0.44026 lineto 0.68333 0.44371 lineto 0.69167 0.44493 lineto 0.7 0.44485 lineto 0.70833 0.44352 lineto 0.71667 0.44008 lineto 0.725 0.43305 lineto 0.73333 0.42064 lineto 0.74167 0.40129 lineto 0.75 0.37412 lineto 0.75833 0.33926 lineto 0.76667 0.29799 lineto 0.775 0.25264 lineto 0.78333 0.20621 lineto 0.79167 0.16193 lineto 0.8 0.12267 lineto 0.80833 0.09042 lineto 0.81667 0.06595 lineto 0.825 0.04876 lineto 0.83333 0.03733 lineto 0.84167 0.02962 lineto 0.85 0.0238 lineto 0.85833 0.01876 lineto 0.86667 0.01439 lineto 0.875 0.01145 lineto 0.88333 0.0111 lineto 0.89167 0.01435 lineto 0.9 0.02166 lineto 0.90833 0.03276 lineto 0.91667 0.04674 lineto 0.91667 0.04674 lineto 0.91667 0.20336 lineto fill grestore grestore gsave gsave gsave 0.004 setlinewidth 0.08333 0.39236 moveto 0.08546 0.39523 lineto 0.08652 0.3964 lineto 0.08759 0.39741 lineto 0.08865 0.39825 lineto 0.08971 0.39892 lineto 0.09024 0.3992 lineto 0.09077 0.39944 lineto 0.09131 0.39964 lineto 0.09184 0.3998 lineto 0.09237 0.39993 lineto 0.0929 0.40002 lineto 0.09343 0.40007 lineto 0.09396 0.40009 lineto 0.09449 0.40007 lineto 0.09503 0.40002 lineto 0.09556 0.39994 lineto 0.09609 0.39982 lineto 0.09715 0.3995 lineto 0.09821 0.39905 lineto 0.09928 0.39848 lineto 0.10034 0.3978 lineto 0.10459 0.39412 lineto 0.10884 0.38915 lineto 0.11735 0.37688 lineto 0.13435 0.35124 lineto 0.15136 0.33072 lineto 0.15986 0.32115 lineto 0.16837 0.31031 lineto 0.18537 0.28127 lineto 0.20238 0.24393 lineto 0.21939 0.2068 lineto 0.23639 0.17465 lineto 0.2534 0.14412 lineto 0.27041 0.11122 lineto 0.28741 0.07772 lineto 0.29592 0.06272 lineto 0.30442 0.05011 lineto 0.31293 0.04068 lineto 0.31718 0.03733 lineto 0.3193 0.03603 lineto 0.32143 0.03497 lineto 0.32249 0.03453 lineto 0.32355 0.03416 lineto 0.32462 0.03385 lineto 0.32568 0.0336 lineto 0.32621 0.0335 lineto 0.32674 0.03341 lineto 0.32727 0.03335 lineto 0.32781 0.03329 lineto Mistroke 0.32834 0.03325 lineto 0.32887 0.03323 lineto 0.3294 0.03322 lineto 0.32993 0.03323 lineto 0.33046 0.03326 lineto 0.33099 0.03329 lineto 0.33153 0.03335 lineto 0.33206 0.03342 lineto 0.33418 0.03385 lineto 0.33525 0.03415 lineto 0.33631 0.03451 lineto 0.33844 0.03541 lineto 0.34269 0.03788 lineto 0.34694 0.04117 lineto 0.35544 0.0499 lineto 0.37245 0.07298 lineto 0.38946 0.09701 lineto 0.39796 0.1069 lineto 0.40221 0.11091 lineto 0.40646 0.11417 lineto 0.41071 0.11659 lineto 0.41284 0.11747 lineto 0.4139 0.11782 lineto 0.41497 0.11811 lineto 0.41603 0.11835 lineto 0.41656 0.11844 lineto 0.41709 0.11852 lineto 0.41762 0.11858 lineto 0.41815 0.11863 lineto 0.41869 0.11866 lineto 0.41922 0.11867 lineto 0.41975 0.11867 lineto 0.42028 0.11866 lineto 0.42081 0.11863 lineto 0.42134 0.11858 lineto 0.42188 0.11852 lineto 0.42241 0.11844 lineto 0.42347 0.11823 lineto 0.42453 0.11796 lineto 0.4256 0.11763 lineto 0.42772 0.11677 lineto 0.42985 0.11566 lineto 0.43197 0.11429 lineto 0.43622 0.11081 lineto 0.44048 0.10637 lineto 0.44898 0.09489 lineto 0.45748 0.08066 lineto 0.47449 0.04888 lineto 0.48299 0.03432 lineto 0.48724 0.02804 lineto Mistroke 0.4915 0.02262 lineto 0.49575 0.01819 lineto 0.49787 0.01636 lineto 0.5 0.0148 lineto 0.50213 0.01351 lineto 0.50425 0.01249 lineto 0.50638 0.01173 lineto 0.50744 0.01144 lineto 0.5085 0.01122 lineto 0.50957 0.01105 lineto 0.5101 0.01099 lineto 0.51063 0.01095 lineto 0.51116 0.01092 lineto 0.51169 0.0109 lineto 0.51222 0.0109 lineto 0.51276 0.01091 lineto 0.51329 0.01093 lineto 0.51382 0.01096 lineto 0.51435 0.01101 lineto 0.51488 0.01107 lineto 0.51594 0.01123 lineto 0.51701 0.01143 lineto 0.51913 0.01197 lineto 0.52126 0.01265 lineto 0.52551 0.0144 lineto 0.53401 0.01888 lineto 0.54252 0.02408 lineto 0.55102 0.03011 lineto 0.55527 0.03378 lineto 0.55952 0.03819 lineto 0.56378 0.04361 lineto 0.56803 0.05031 lineto 0.57228 0.05856 lineto 0.57653 0.06859 lineto 0.58503 0.09457 lineto 0.59354 0.12863 lineto 0.61054 0.21564 lineto 0.62755 0.30882 lineto 0.63605 0.34958 lineto 0.64456 0.38319 lineto 0.64881 0.39694 lineto 0.65306 0.40861 lineto 0.65731 0.41825 lineto 0.66156 0.426 lineto 0.66582 0.43203 lineto 0.67007 0.43656 lineto 0.67219 0.43834 lineto 0.67432 0.43984 lineto 0.67645 0.44108 lineto 0.67857 0.4421 lineto Mistroke 0.6807 0.44292 lineto 0.68282 0.44357 lineto 0.68495 0.44408 lineto 0.68707 0.44446 lineto 0.68814 0.44461 lineto 0.6892 0.44473 lineto 0.69026 0.44483 lineto 0.69133 0.44491 lineto 0.69186 0.44494 lineto 0.69239 0.44497 lineto 0.69292 0.44499 lineto 0.69345 0.44501 lineto 0.69398 0.44502 lineto 0.69452 0.44503 lineto 0.69505 0.44503 lineto 0.69558 0.44503 lineto 0.69611 0.44503 lineto 0.69664 0.44502 lineto 0.69717 0.445 lineto 0.6977 0.44498 lineto 0.69877 0.44493 lineto 0.69983 0.44487 lineto 0.70089 0.44478 lineto 0.70196 0.44467 lineto 0.70408 0.44439 lineto 0.70621 0.44401 lineto 0.70833 0.44352 lineto 0.71046 0.44289 lineto 0.71259 0.44211 lineto 0.71471 0.44115 lineto 0.71684 0.43998 lineto 0.72109 0.43691 lineto 0.72534 0.43266 lineto 0.72959 0.42699 lineto 0.73384 0.41967 lineto 0.7381 0.41051 lineto 0.7466 0.38617 lineto 0.7551 0.35363 lineto 0.76361 0.31377 lineto 0.78061 0.22129 lineto 0.79762 0.13324 lineto 0.80612 0.09823 lineto 0.81463 0.07123 lineto 0.81888 0.06073 lineto 0.82313 0.05206 lineto 0.82738 0.04499 lineto 0.83163 0.03929 lineto 0.84014 0.03085 lineto 0.84864 0.02468 lineto 0.85714 0.01945 lineto Mistroke 0.86139 0.01706 lineto 0.86565 0.01487 lineto 0.8699 0.01302 lineto 0.87202 0.01227 lineto 0.87415 0.01165 lineto 0.87521 0.01141 lineto 0.87628 0.0112 lineto 0.87681 0.01111 lineto 0.87734 0.01104 lineto 0.87787 0.01098 lineto 0.8784 0.01093 lineto 0.87893 0.01089 lineto 0.87946 0.01087 lineto 0.88 0.01085 lineto 0.88053 0.01086 lineto 0.88106 0.01087 lineto 0.88159 0.0109 lineto 0.88212 0.01094 lineto 0.88265 0.011 lineto 0.88372 0.01116 lineto 0.88478 0.01138 lineto 0.88584 0.01166 lineto 0.8869 0.01201 lineto 0.88903 0.01289 lineto 0.89116 0.01403 lineto 0.89541 0.01713 lineto 0.89966 0.02128 lineto 0.90816 0.0325 lineto 0.91667 0.04674 lineto Mfstroke grestore grestore grestore gsave 0.004 setlinewidth 0.08333 0.20336 moveto 0.91667 0.20336 lineto stroke grestore gsave gsave 1 1 1 setrgbcolor 0.004 setlinewidth 0.13844 0.26657 moveto 0.13844 0.26657 0.035 0 365.73 arc fill 0 0 0 setrgbcolor 0.16344 0.27032 moveto 0.14219 0.27032 lineto 0.14219 0.29157 lineto 0.13469 0.29157 lineto 0.13469 0.27032 lineto 0.11344 0.27032 lineto 0.11344 0.26282 lineto 0.13469 0.26282 lineto 0.13469 0.24157 lineto 0.14219 0.24157 lineto 0.14219 0.26282 lineto 0.16344 0.26282 lineto fill grestore grestore gsave gsave 1 1 1 setrgbcolor 0.004 setlinewidth 0.51152 0.10713 moveto 0.51152 0.10713 0.035 0 365.73 arc fill 0 0 0 setrgbcolor 0.53652 0.11088 moveto 0.48652 0.11088 lineto 0.48652 0.10338 lineto 0.53652 0.10338 lineto fill grestore grestore gsave gsave 1 1 1 setrgbcolor 0.004 setlinewidth 0.69609 0.32419 moveto 0.69609 0.32419 0.035 0 365.73 arc fill 0 0 0 setrgbcolor 0.72109 0.32794 moveto 0.69984 0.32794 lineto 0.69984 0.34919 lineto 0.69234 0.34919 lineto 0.69234 0.32794 lineto 0.67109 0.32794 lineto 0.67109 0.32044 lineto 0.69234 0.32044 lineto 0.69234 0.29919 lineto 0.69984 0.29919 lineto 0.69984 0.32044 lineto 0.72109 0.32044 lineto fill grestore grestore gsave gsave 1 1 1 setrgbcolor 0.004 setlinewidth 0.86354 0.10964 moveto 0.86354 0.10964 0.035 0 365.73 arc fill 0 0 0 setrgbcolor 0.88854 0.11339 moveto 0.83854 0.11339 lineto 0.83854 0.10589 lineto 0.88854 0.10589 lineto fill grestore grestore gsave gsave 0 setgray [(a)] 0.08333 0.17836 0 0 Mshowa 0 setgray [(b)] 0.91667 0.22836 0 0 Mshowa 0 setgray [(y = f[x])] 0.33333 0.37003 0 0 Mshowa grestore grestore grestore % End of Graphics MathPictureEnd :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Now we define a number which we call the integral of f[˚x˚] from a to b˚. This number is signified by #Ìı f[x] dx and its value is is the sum of these areas taken with the corresponding signs. Accordingly, if xˋ , x“ , and x£ are as indicated below: :[font = input; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Show[shadeColor,graph,line,ticks,dots,signs1,labels, DisplayFunction->$DisplayFunction]; :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 8; pictureTop = 7; pictureWidth = 273; pictureHeight = 124; endGroup; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.45589 MathPictureStart % Scaling calculations 0.04167 0.08333 0.20336 0.08333 [ [ -0.001 -0.001 0 0 ] [ 1.001 0.45689 0 0 ] ] MathScale % Start of Graphics 1 setlinecap 1 setlinejoin newpath %%Object: Graphics [ ] 0 setdash 0 setgray gsave gsave 0.002 setlinewidth 0 0.20336 moveto 1 0.20336 lineto stroke 0.04167 0 moveto 0.04167 0.45589 lineto stroke grestore grestore 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto 1 0.455887 lineto 0 0.455887 lineto closepath clip newpath 0 setgray gsave gsave gsave 0.75 0.75 1 setrgbcolor 0.08333 0.20336 moveto 0.08333 0.39236 lineto 0.09167 0.39976 lineto 0.1 0.39803 lineto 0.10833 0.3898 lineto 0.11667 0.37792 lineto 0.125 0.36495 lineto 0.13333 0.35265 lineto 0.14167 0.34182 lineto 0.15 0.33223 lineto 0.15833 0.32293 lineto 0.16667 0.31264 lineto 0.175 0.30027 lineto 0.18333 0.28531 lineto 0.19167 0.26804 lineto 0.2 0.24936 lineto 0.20833 0.23047 lineto 0.21667 0.21241 lineto 0.225 0.19568 lineto 0.23333 0.18015 lineto 0.24167 0.16527 lineto 0.25 0.15035 lineto 0.25833 0.13487 lineto 0.26667 0.11867 lineto 0.275 0.10202 lineto 0.28333 0.08551 lineto 0.29167 0.06997 lineto 0.3 0.05631 lineto 0.30833 0.04534 lineto 0.31667 0.03769 lineto 0.325 0.03375 lineto 0.33333 0.03365 lineto 0.34167 0.03721 lineto 0.35 0.04401 lineto 0.35833 0.05341 lineto 0.36667 0.06461 lineto 0.375 0.07672 lineto 0.38333 0.08876 lineto 0.39167 0.09979 lineto 0.4 0.10891 lineto 0.40833 0.11534 lineto 0.41667 0.11846 lineto 0.425 0.11783 lineto 0.43333 0.11329 lineto 0.44167 0.10496 lineto 0.45 0.09331 lineto 0.45833 0.07913 lineto 0.46667 0.06355 lineto 0.475 0.04795 lineto 0.48333 0.03379 lineto 0.49167 0.02243 lineto 0.5 0.0148 lineto 0.50833 0.01125 lineto 0.51667 0.01136 lineto 0.525 0.01417 lineto 0.53333 0.01849 lineto 0.54167 0.02353 lineto 0.55 0.02931 lineto 0.55833 0.03687 lineto 0.56667 0.04801 lineto 0.575 0.06476 lineto 0.58333 0.08872 lineto 0.59167 0.12047 lineto 0.6 0.15934 lineto 0.60833 0.20341 lineto 0.61667 0.24988 lineto 0.625 0.29551 lineto 0.63333 0.33723 lineto 0.64167 0.37266 lineto 0.65 0.40042 lineto 0.65833 0.42027 lineto 0.66667 0.43305 lineto 0.675 0.44026 lineto 0.68333 0.44371 lineto 0.69167 0.44493 lineto 0.7 0.44485 lineto 0.70833 0.44352 lineto 0.71667 0.44008 lineto 0.725 0.43305 lineto 0.73333 0.42064 lineto 0.74167 0.40129 lineto 0.75 0.37412 lineto 0.75833 0.33926 lineto 0.76667 0.29799 lineto 0.775 0.25264 lineto 0.78333 0.20621 lineto 0.79167 0.16193 lineto 0.8 0.12267 lineto 0.80833 0.09042 lineto 0.81667 0.06595 lineto 0.825 0.04876 lineto 0.83333 0.03733 lineto 0.84167 0.02962 lineto 0.85 0.0238 lineto 0.85833 0.01876 lineto 0.86667 0.01439 lineto 0.875 0.01145 lineto 0.88333 0.0111 lineto 0.89167 0.01435 lineto 0.9 0.02166 lineto 0.90833 0.03276 lineto 0.91667 0.04674 lineto 0.91667 0.04674 lineto 0.91667 0.20336 lineto fill grestore grestore gsave gsave gsave 0.004 setlinewidth 0.08333 0.39236 moveto 0.08546 0.39523 lineto 0.08652 0.3964 lineto 0.08759 0.39741 lineto 0.08865 0.39825 lineto 0.08971 0.39892 lineto 0.09024 0.3992 lineto 0.09077 0.39944 lineto 0.09131 0.39964 lineto 0.09184 0.3998 lineto 0.09237 0.39993 lineto 0.0929 0.40002 lineto 0.09343 0.40007 lineto 0.09396 0.40009 lineto 0.09449 0.40007 lineto 0.09503 0.40002 lineto 0.09556 0.39994 lineto 0.09609 0.39982 lineto 0.09715 0.3995 lineto 0.09821 0.39905 lineto 0.09928 0.39848 lineto 0.10034 0.3978 lineto 0.10459 0.39412 lineto 0.10884 0.38915 lineto 0.11735 0.37688 lineto 0.13435 0.35124 lineto 0.15136 0.33072 lineto 0.15986 0.32115 lineto 0.16837 0.31031 lineto 0.18537 0.28127 lineto 0.20238 0.24393 lineto 0.21939 0.2068 lineto 0.23639 0.17465 lineto 0.2534 0.14412 lineto 0.27041 0.11122 lineto 0.28741 0.07772 lineto 0.29592 0.06272 lineto 0.30442 0.05011 lineto 0.31293 0.04068 lineto 0.31718 0.03733 lineto 0.3193 0.03603 lineto 0.32143 0.03497 lineto 0.32249 0.03453 lineto 0.32355 0.03416 lineto 0.32462 0.03385 lineto 0.32568 0.0336 lineto 0.32621 0.0335 lineto 0.32674 0.03341 lineto 0.32727 0.03335 lineto 0.32781 0.03329 lineto Mistroke 0.32834 0.03325 lineto 0.32887 0.03323 lineto 0.3294 0.03322 lineto 0.32993 0.03323 lineto 0.33046 0.03326 lineto 0.33099 0.03329 lineto 0.33153 0.03335 lineto 0.33206 0.03342 lineto 0.33418 0.03385 lineto 0.33525 0.03415 lineto 0.33631 0.03451 lineto 0.33844 0.03541 lineto 0.34269 0.03788 lineto 0.34694 0.04117 lineto 0.35544 0.0499 lineto 0.37245 0.07298 lineto 0.38946 0.09701 lineto 0.39796 0.1069 lineto 0.40221 0.11091 lineto 0.40646 0.11417 lineto 0.41071 0.11659 lineto 0.41284 0.11747 lineto 0.4139 0.11782 lineto 0.41497 0.11811 lineto 0.41603 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inactive; preserveAspect; ] B.1.b) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Make the indicated area measurents: :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] B.1.b.i) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] #ˋé (“Òû + 1)˚ dx. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] #ˋé (“Òû + 1)˚ dx measures the area under the curve y = f[x] = (“Òû + 1) and above the segment [1,˚4˚] on the x-axis. Here is a plot: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Clear[f,x] f[x_] = (x/2 + 1) :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] functionplot = Plot[f[x],{x,1,4},PlotRange->{0,3}, AspectRatio->Automatic,AxesLabel->{"x","y"}, DisplayFunction->Identity]; poly = Graphics[{GrayLevel[.75], Polygon[{{1,0},{1,f[1]},{4,f[4]},{4,0}}]}]; Show[functionplot,poly, Ticks->{{1,2,3,4},{1,2,3}}, AxesOrigin->{0,0}, AxesLabel->{"x","y"}, DisplayFunction->$DisplayFunction]; :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] This integral is the area of a trapezoid with :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] shortHeight = 1.5 tallHeight = 3 width = 3 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Consequently the area measurement #ˋé (x/2 +1) dx in square units is given by: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] ((tallHeight + shortHeight)/2) width :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Mathematica can also handle this measurement directly: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[(x/2 + 1),{x,1,4}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] This fraction has the value: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] N[27/4] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Got it. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] B.1.b.ii) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] #— ¢é (“Òû + 1)˚˚ dx :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] #— ¢é (“Òû + 1)˚ dx measures the area under the curve y = f[x] = (“Òû + 1) and above the segment [-4,˚4˚] on the x-axis. Take a look at the plot: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Clear[f,x] f[x_] = (x/2 + 1) :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] functionplot = Plot[f[x],{x,-4,4},PlotRange->{-2,3}, AspectRatio->Automatic,AxesLabel->{"x","y"}]; :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Put in the shading: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] poly= Graphics[{GrayLevel[.75],Polygon[{{-4,0},{-4,f[-4]}, {4,f[4]},{4,0}}]}] Show[poly,functionplot, Graphics[Line[{{-4,0},{4,0}}]], DisplayFunction->$DisplayFunction]; :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The measure #—±¢ç (“Òû + 1) dx of the triangular area on the left is negative: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] height = 1 base = 2 left = -(1/2) base height :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The measure #— “é (“Òû + 1) dx of the triangular area on the right is positive: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] height = 3 base = 6 right = +(1/2) base height :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Consequently the area measurement #— ¢é (“Òû + 1)˚ dx = #—±¢ç (“Òû + 1) + #— “é (“Òû + 1) dx is given by: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] left + right :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Mathematica can make the area measurement #— ¢é (“Òû + 1)˚ dx directly: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[(x/2 + 1),{x,-4,4}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; ] Got it and it wasn't very hard. :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] B.2) The integral sign. :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] What is the strange looking notation #Ìı f[x]˚ dx supposed to convey? :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] This whimsically suggestive notation goes all the way back to the emergence of calculus as a coherent body of study in the late 1600's. The lazy S symbol # was invented by Leibniz himself in 1675. It is supposed to conjure up the idea of an area between the x - axis and the graph of y = f[x] as a "moving sum" of all the individual constituent vertical line segments running from {x,0} to {x, f[x]} for a ² x ² b. 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0.32513 lineto 0.69841 0.36699 lineto 0.7381 0.40795 lineto 0.77778 0.44728 lineto 0.81746 0.48439 lineto 0.85714 0.51882 lineto 0.89683 0.55024 lineto 0.93651 0.57845 lineto 0.97619 0.60332 lineto Mfstroke grestore grestore grestore grestore % End of Graphics MathPictureEnd :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; ] When f[x] < 0, the line segment is assigned a negative length; when f[x] > 0, the line segment is assigned a positive length. So #Ìı f[x]˚ dx means that we "sum up" the lengths of these line segments and arrive at the (signed) area that #Ìı f[x]˚ dx measures. This is an excellent way of visualizing what the integral is and a lot of good mathematics is based on the intuition gained by thinking this way. :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] B.3) Three basic properties. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] B.3.a) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Explain the formula #Ìı f[˚x˚] dx = #ÌÁ f[˚x˚] dx + #Íı f[˚x˚] dx for any number c with a < c < b. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The integral #Ìı f[˚x˚] dx measures the (signed) area between the graph of y = f[˚x˚] and the segment of the x-axis between x = a and x = b. The sum #ÌÁ f[˚x˚] dx + #Íı f[˚x˚] dx measures the same signed area but calulates it in two parts. Let's try it for f[˚x˚] = 2x -˚˚4, a = 0, c = 3 and b = 5. The number #…ê (2 x - 4) dx is given by: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[2 x - 4,{x,0,5}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] This should be equal to #…è (2 x - 4) dx + #£ê (2 x - 4) dx: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[2 x - 4,{x,0,3}] + Integrate[2 x - 4,{x,3,5}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] On the money. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] B.3.b) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Explain the formula #Ìı K f[˚˚x˚˚] dx = K #Ìı f[˚x˚˚] dx for any number K. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The expression K #Ìı f[˚x˚] dx measures an area and then multiplies by K to expand the value of the area. The expression #Ìı K f[˚x˚] dx expands the area vertically first (by multiplying by K) and then measures the result. Either expression leads to the same result. Let's try it for f[˚x˚] = 4 x˚˚ + 1. :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Clear[K,x] Integrate[ K (4 x + 1),{x,1,7}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] This should agree with: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] K Integrate[(4 x + 1),{x,1,7}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] It does. Let's try it for a particular value of K: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[19 (x + 1),{x,1,7}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] should be: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] 19 Integrate[(x + 1),{x,1,7}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Got it. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] B.3.c) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Explain the formula #Ìı f[˚˚x˚˚] dx = #Ìı f[˚˚t˚˚] dt . :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Look at the following plots: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Clear[x,t] f[x_] = 2 x^3 E^(-x) :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Plot[f[x],{x,0,8}, AspectRatio->Automatic, AxesLabel->{"x","y"}, Ticks->{{1},None}]; :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Plot[ f[t],{t,0,8}, AspectRatio->Automatic, AxesLabel->{"t","y"}, Ticks->{{1},None}]; :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; endGroup; ] The area between horizontal axis and each curve is the same. So for this function f[x], we see that #…¡ f[x] dx = #…¡ f[t] dt. The same thing will happen for other functions and other intervals. The use of the symbol t instead of the symbol x is a matter of bureaucracy and not a matter of mathematics or science. Only bean counters worry about it. :[font = section; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Tutorial :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] T.1) Evaluation of integrals. :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Make the indicated area measurents: :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.1.a) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] #— ˋê (“ÒèÒû - 6)˚ dx :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] To see what's happening, plot: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Clear[f,x] f[x_]= 3 x/2 - 6 functionplot = Plot[f[x],{x,-1,5},AspectRatio->Automatic] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Put in some shading: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] poly = Graphics[{GrayLevel[.75], Polygon[{{-1,0},{-1,f[-1]},{5,f[5]},{5,0}}]}] Show[poly,functionplot] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] This tells us to look at #— ˋê (“ÒèÒû - 6)˚ dx = #— ˋé (“ÒèÒû - 6) ˚dx + #¢ê (“ÒèÒû - 6)˚ dx. Here #¢ê (“ÒèÒû - 6) dx is the positive area under the curve y = “ÒèÒû - 6 and above the segment [˚4,˚˚5˚] on the x-axis. This is a triangle with: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] base = 5 - 4 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] and :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] height = (3 x/2 - 6)/.x->5 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] So #¢ê (“ÒèÒû - 6) dx is :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] posarea = (1/2) (base height) :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Also #— ˋé (“ÒèÒû - 6) ˚dx is the negative of the area over the curve y = “ÒèÒû - 6 and below the segment [˚-1,˚˚4˚] on the x-axis. This is a triangle with: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] base = 4 - (-1) :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] height = (3 x/2 - 6)/.x->-1 :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] So #— ˋé (“ÒèÒû - 6) dx is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] negarea = (1/2) base height :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The integral #— ˋê (“ÒèÒû - 6)˚ dx = #— ˋé (“ÒèÒû - 6) ˚dx + #¢ê (“ÒèÒû - 6)˚ dx is given by: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] posarea + negarea :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Mathematica can handle this one too. :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[3 x/2 - 6,{x,-1,5}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Got it. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.1.b) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] #— £è Î9ã ã-ãã ãxç dx :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] This integral measures the area of the top half of the circle xç + yç = 9. If you don't believe this, then just solve xç + yç = 9 for y: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Clear[x,y] ysolved = Solve[x^2 + y^2 == 9,y] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The function we are integrating is Î9ã ã-ã ã˚ãxã˚ç˚. Here's a plot: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Plot[Sqrt[9 - x^2],{x,-3,3},AspectRatio->Automatic]; :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] So #— £è Î9ã ã-ã ã˚ãxã˚ç˚˚˚˚dx measures the area inside this circle and above the x-axis, that is half the area of the circle. The radius is 3. As a result, the area and the integral have the value: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] (1/2) Pi 3^2 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Let's see what Mathematica does with this integral: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[Sqrt[9 - x^2],{x,-3,3}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Got it. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.1.c) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] #…è Î9ã ã-ã ã˚ãx˚ç˚˚dx. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] This is just the area of one quarter of a circle of radius 3; so :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] #…è Î9ã ã-ã ã˚ãxã˚ç˚˚ dx = (¢Òå) ` 3ç = ¢ÒÆÒä Check: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[Sqrt[9 - x^2],{x,0,3}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; ] Got it. :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] T.2) Integration by approximation by trapezoids and the Mathematica instruction NIntegrate. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.2.a.i) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Plot on the same axes: f[˚˚x˚˚] = Sin[˚˚` x˚˚] for 0 ² x ²1 and the broken line that joins the four points on the curve {0, f[0]}, {£Òå, f˚[˚£Òå]˚˚}, {{Ò£ç, f˚[{£Òç]}, {1, f˚[˚1˚]}. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Define the function: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Clear[f,x,jump] f[x_] = Sin[Pi x] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Take a look at the plot: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] curveplot = Plot[f[x],{x,0,1}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Make a table of the points {0, f[0]}, {£Òå, f˚[˚£Òå]˚˚}, {{Ò£ç, f˚[{£Òç]}, {1, f˚[˚1˚]}. The jump from in the x-coordinate from point to point is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump = 1/3 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] So the points {0, f[0]}, {£Òå, f˚[˚£Òå]˚˚}, {{Ò£ç, f˚[{£Òç]}, {1, f˚[˚1˚]} are given by: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] points = Table[{x,f[x]},{x,0,1,jump}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Set up the plot of the points and the broken line segments: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] pointplot = ListPlot[points, PlotStyle->{RGBColor[0,0,1],PointSize[.015]}, DisplayFunction-> Identity] brokenlineplot = Graphics[Line[points]] Show[curveplot,pointplot,brokenlineplot] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] The straight-sided figure takes a healthy bite of the area under the curve measured by #…å Sin[` x] dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.2.a.ii) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Measure the (signed) area between the x-axis and broken line segments. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The (signed) area between the x-axis and the broken line segments plotted above is the sum of the areas of consecutive trapezoids based on segments [˚˚x, x + jump˚] on the x-axis. Each has base of length = jump. Each has two heights-namely f˚[˚˚x˚] and f˚[˚x + jump˚]˚˚. So the area of each of the trapezoids is ÒõÒŁÒýÒ‚Ò Ò½ÒòÒ½ÒûÒàÒ Ò–“Ò ÒòÒ½ÒûÒ Ò–Ò ÒõÒŁÒýÒ‚ÒàÒà and we start at x = 0 and finish at x = 1 - jump. The sum of these areas is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Area[4] = N[Sum[jump (f[x] + f[x+jump])/2,{x,0,1-jump,jump}]] :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.2.a.iii) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Redo (T.2.a.i) and (T.2.a.ii) for 7 equally spaced points. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] We are going from 0 to 1 in 6 equal jumps. The jump from point to point is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump = 1/6 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The points are given by: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] points = Table[{x,f[x]},{x,0,1,jump}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Set up the plot of the curve, the points and the broken line segments: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] pointplot = ListPlot[points, PlotStyle->{RGBColor[0,0,1],PointSize[.015]}, DisplayFunction-> Identity] brokenlineplot = Graphics[Line[points]] Show[curveplot,pointplot,brokenlineplot] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The straight-sided figure takes a healthy bite of the area under the curve measured by #…å Sin[` x] dx. :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Look at one of the trapezoids: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Clear[trap] trap[x_]:=Graphics[{GrayLevel[.75], Polygon[{{x,0},{x,f[x]},{x+jump,f[x+jump]},{x+jump,0}}]}] Show[trap[2 jump],curveplot,brokenlineplot, Ticks->{{2 jump,3 jump},Automatic}]; :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Or all of them: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Show[trap[0 jump],trap[1 jump],trap[2 jump],trap[3 jump], trap[4 jump],trap[5 jump],curveplot,brokenlineplot, Ticks->{{0,jump,2 jump,3 jump,4 jump, 5 jump,6 jump}, Automatic}]; :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Notice that when we had four points we saw three trapezoids, but now for seven points we see six trapezoids. So for the case of n points, we will see (n-1) trapezoids. :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The (shaded) area under broken line segments is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Area[7] = N[Sum[jump (f[x] + f[x+jump])/2,{x,0,1-jump,jump}]] :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.2.a.iv) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Redo (T.2.a.i) and (T.2.a.ii) for 13 equally spaced points. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] We are going from 0 to 1 in 12 equal jumps. The jump from point to point is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump = 1/12 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The points are given by: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] points = Table[{x,f[x]},{x,0,1,jump}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Set up the plot of curve, the points and the broken line segments: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] pointplot = ListPlot[points, PlotStyle->{RGBColor[0,0,1],PointSize[.015]}, DisplayFunction-> Identity]; brokenlineplot = Graphics[Line[points]]; Show[curveplot,pointplot,brokenlineplot] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The straight-sided figure takes a very healthy bite of the area under the curve measured by #…å Sin[` x] dx. :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The (shaded) area under the straight-sided figure is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Area[13] = N[Sum[jump (f[x] + f[x+jump])/2,{x,0,1-jump,jump}]] :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.2.a.v) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Redo (T.2.a.i) and (T.2.a.ii) for 25 equally spaced points. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] We are going from 0 to 1 in 24 equal jumps. The jump from point to point is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump = 1/24 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The points are given by: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] points = Table[{x,f[x]},{x,0,1,jump}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Set up the plot of the curve, the points and the broken line segments: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] pointplot = ListPlot[points, PlotStyle->{RGBColor[0,0,1],PointSize[.015]}, DisplayFunction-> Identity]; brokenlineplot = Graphics[Line[points]]; Show[curveplot,pointplot,brokenlineplot] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Wow! You need a microscope to tell the area under the broken line segments from the area under the curve. :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The area under the straight-sided figure is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Area[25] = N[Sum[jump (f[x] + f[x+jump])/2,{x,0,1-jump,jump}]] :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.2.a.vi) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Measure the area under the broken line segments for 50 equally spaced points. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] There are 49 intervals; so: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump = 1/49 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The area under the broken line segments is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Area[50] = N[Sum[jump (f[x] + f[x+jump])/2,{x,0,1-jump,jump}]] :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.2.a.vii) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Measure the area under the broken line segments for 100 equally spaced points. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] There are 99 intervals; so: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump = 1/99 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The area under the broken line segments is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Area[100] = N[Sum[jump (f[x] + f[x+jump])/2,{x,0,1-jump,jump}]] :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.2.a.viii) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Review and assess your calculations. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The pictures show that, for large n's, the broken line segments are hard to tell from the original curve. Consequently, for large n's, the area under the straight-sided figures should be very close to the exact measurement #…å Sin[˚` x˚] dx˚˚. Let's look at the values of these areas that we calculated above: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] {Area[4],Area[7],Area[13],Area[25],Area[50],Area[100]} :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] These figures strongly suggest that #…å Sin[˚` x˚] dx = 0.636 within 0.001. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.2.a.ix) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] How are these calculations related to the Mathematica instruction NIntegrate? :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The Mathematica instruction NIntegrate uses an approximation procedure similar (actually it's similar but a bit better) to what we just did. Let's try this instruction to test our seat-of-the-pants estimate #…å Sin[˚` x˚] dx = 0.636 within 0.001. :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] NIntegrate[Sin[Pi x],{x,0,1}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Our estimate was not so bad. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.2.b) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Use trapezoids to get a reasonable idea of the value of the area measurement #ˋé (xè - 2 xç) e±û dx. Check your estimate with Mathematica instruction NIntegrate. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The set-up involves only a few modifications to what we did in part (T.2.a) above. As we did above, we'll start with four equally spaced points to make sure everything is running smoothly and then we'll advance to more points with smaller jumps between them. :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Define the function: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Clear[f,x,jump] f[x_] = (x^3 - 2 x^2) E^(-x) :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Take a look at the plot: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] curveplot = Plot[f[x],{x,1,4},PlotRange->All]; :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Take four equally spaced points on the x-axis starting with x =1 and stopping with x = 4. The jump from point to point is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump = (4 - 1)/3 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] So the points are given by: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] points = Table[{x,f[x]},{x,1,4,jump}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Set up the plot of the curve, the points and the broken line segments: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] pointplot = ListPlot[points, PlotStyle->{RGBColor[0,0,1],PointSize[.015]}, DisplayFunction-> Identity] brokenlineplot = Graphics[Line[points]] Show[curveplot,pointplot,brokenlineplot] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The (signed) area between the x-axis and the broken line segments plotted above is the sum of the area of consecutive trapezoids based on segments [x, x + jump] on the x-axis. Each has base = jump. Each has two heights- namely f[x] and f[x + jump]. So the area of each of the trapezoids is ÒõÒŁÒýÒ‚Ò Ò½ÒòÒ½ÒûÒàÒ Ò–“Ò ÒòÒ½ÒûÒ Ò–Ò ÒõÒŁÒýÒ‚ÒàÒà The sum of these areas is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Area[4] = N[Sum[jump (f[x] + f[x+jump])/2,{x,1,4 - jump,jump}]] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Note how the leftmost trapezoid carries a negative area: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump (f[1] + f[1+jump])/2 :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] This is the way it should be. :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Now let's try 13 points: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump = (4 - 1)/12 :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] points = Table[{x,f[x]},{x,1,4,jump}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Set up the plot of the curve, the points and the broken line segments: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] pointplot = ListPlot[points, PlotStyle->{RGBColor[0,0,1],PointSize[.015]}, DisplayFunction-> Identity] brokenlineplot = Graphics[Line[points]] Show[curveplot,pointplot,brokenlineplot] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Neat; you can hardly tell the broken line segments from the curve. The trapezoidal area is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Area[13] = N[Sum[jump (f[x] + f[x+jump])/2,{x,1,4-jump,jump}]] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Now try 25 points: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump = (4 - 1)/24 :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Area[25] = N[Sum[jump (f[x] + f[x+jump])/2,{x,1,4-jump,jump}]] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 50 points: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump = (4 - 1)/49 :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Area[50] = N[Sum[jump (f[x] + f[x+jump])/2,{x,1,4-jump,jump}]] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 100 points: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] jump = (4 - 1)/99 :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Area[100] = N[Sum[jump (f[x] + f[x+jump])/2,{x,1,4-jump,jump}]] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Review and assess: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] {Area[4],Area[13],Area[25],Area[50],Area[100]} :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] This is pretty strong evidence. A pitcher of golden liquid refreshment bets that #ˋé (x - 2 xç) e±û dx = 0.558869 to 6 accurate decimals. Let's see: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] NIntegrate[f[x],{x,1,4}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] That was a safe bet. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.2.c) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] In practice, how do we know how to set the number of points to achieve desired accuracy? :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; ] That's hard to answer. Experience seems to say that the peppy functions usually require more points than lazy functions. Some of the old style calculus books and all numerical analysis books give formulas for error estimates, but these formulas are rather revolting to use and the error estimates these formulas predict are unrealistically conservative in most practical situations. :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] T.3) Using the instruction NIntegrate. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.3.a) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Use NIntegrate to estimate the value of #…å 4/(1 + xç) dx. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Clear[x] NIntegrate[4/(1 + x^2),{x,0,1}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Say, that number looks familiar! :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] N[Pi] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] The smart money bets #…å 4/(1 + xç) dx = ` . :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.3.b) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] For t ¬ 0, set f[t] = #…ð Sin[x] dx - 1 and plot f[t] for 0 ² t ² 2 `. Use your plot to guess a formula for f[t]. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Clear[f,x,t] f[t_] := NIntegrate[Sin[x],{x,0,t}] - 1 curveplot = Plot[f[t],{t,0,2 Pi},AxesLabel->{"t","y"}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Say, that curve looks familiar! :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] negcosplot = Plot[-Cos[t],{t,0,2 Pi}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The plots appear to be identical! Superimpose the plots: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Show[curveplot,negcosplot] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; ] They share the same ink all the way. The smart money bets f[t] = #…ð Sin[x] dx - 1 = -Cos[t]. :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] T.4) Nonsense integrals. :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] When we write #Ìı f[x] dx and attempt to evaluate it, the expression #Ìı f[x] dx is meaningless if --> f[x] becomes unbounded in [a,b] or if --> f[x] is not defined at some x in [a,b] or if --> f[x] has a singularity (blow up or blow down) in [a,b]. Say why none of the following integrals have meaning. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.4.a) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] #— £ç (1/xç) dx and #…å (1/xç) dx :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] These are meaningless because (1/xç) blows up (is unbounded) on any interval containing 0. :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Plot[1/x^2,{x,-.5,.2}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Note that Mathematica (version 1.2) advertises a value of: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[1/x^2,{x,-3,2}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] for #— £ç (1/xç) dx. This answer is wrong because #— £ç (1/xç) dx is meaningless. Newer versions of Mathematica will not make this mistake. On the other hand Mathematica correctly declines to answer when you ask for #…å (1/xç) dx: :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Integrate[1/x^2,{x,0,1}] :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.4.b) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] #— ˋå Îx dx :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Within the realm of real numbers, this is meaningless because Îx is undefined as a real number for - 1 ² x < 0. So there is no physical meaning to the area under the curve y = Îx for -1 ² x ² 0. Let's see what Mathematica does: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[Sqrt[x],{x,-1,1}] :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] y'[x] = Cos[x y[x]] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Mathematica here makes the only possible choice and interprets the integral as #— ˋå Îx dx = #— ˋí Îx dx + #…å Îx dx = #— ˋí Î-ã1ã ã(ã-ãxã) dx + #…å Îx dx = #— ˋí Î-ã1 Î-ãx dx + #…å Îx dx = Î-ã1 #— ˋí Î-ãx dx + #…å Îx dx. Then, Mathematica gives, by a method you will soon understand, that #— ˋí Î-ãx dx = £Òç #…å Î-ãx dx = £Òç and comes up with the overall answer : (£Òç) + (£Òç) Î-ãx = (£Òç) + (£Òç) I. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] T.4.c) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] #…å Î1ã ã-ã ã4ãxãç dx :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Answer: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Take a look at a plot: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Plot[Sqrt[1 - 4 x^2],{x,0,1}, PlotRange->{{0,1},{0,1}}]; :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The errror messages and the plot tell you that there is no curve for .5 < x ² 1. No wonder because 1 - 4xç < 0 for x > “Òå and hence Î1ã ã-ã ã4ãxãç is undefined as a real number on the subinterval [1/2,1] of [0,1]. Consequently #…å Î1ã ã-ã ã4ãxãç dx is meaningless because there is no physical meaning to the area under the curve y = 1 - 4xç for “Òå < x ² 1. :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Let's see what Mathematica does: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[Sqrt[1 - 4 x^2],{x,0,1}] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; endGroup; ] Again Mathematica was forced to into the realm of complex (imaginary) numbers to handle this integral. :[font = section; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Give it a try :[font = subsubsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] How to type integral signs: The CalcMath font. If you want some tips on typing integrals and text, put the cursor on top of the little box and double click. -----------------------------------> :[font = smalltext; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] To type #Ìı f[x] dx, all you have to do is: 1.) Be sure that you are using the CalcAndMath keyboard mapping. Check by double clicking on the clock on the dock. 2.) Type shift-3 to get the integral sign ... # . 3.) Type Alternate-a to get the lower limit. 4.) Type Shift-Alternate-b to get the upper limit. If you want more information on the CalcMath font, then click the box: :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; ] Typing more complicated expressions like # Óܼ½©ð¾à f[x] dx is slightly trickier: Probably the best way to do it is to place the blinker where you want the integral sign to be. Then execute steps 2 and three above. Then a.) Type Shift-3; The result will be: #. b.) Type Control-s; the result will be: #Ó .. c.) Type Shift-Control-c; the result will be: #ÓÜ. d.) Type Alternate-[ and Shift-Alternate-[ and get #Óܼ½. e.) Type Alternate-t and Shift-Alternate-t, and finally type Alternate-] and Shift-Alternate-] to get #Óܼ½©ð¾à . The beauty (and the trouble) here is that the lower characters are zero-width. As a result, the cursor does not advance after you type a lower character. It does advance after you type a high character. :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] G.1) Taking advantage of symmetry-odd functions and even functions. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.1.a) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Plot f[x] = xè on [-2, 2]. What is the value of #— “ç xè dx and why? :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.1.b) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Plot f[x] = Sin[x] on [-`,`]. What is the value of #— ~ä Sin[x] dx and why? :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.1.c) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Plot f[x] = Sin[x] on [-2`,2`]. What is the value of #— “ç~ä Sin[x] dx and why? :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.1.d) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Plot f[x] = x e±ûÄ on [-4,4]. What is the value of #— ¢é x e±ûÄ dx and why? :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.1.e) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] What is the value of #— “ç x (1 - 3 xç + 7xé˚)/(1 + 5 xç + 6xé) dx and why? :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.1.f) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] A function f[x] is called odd if f[-x] = -f[x] for all x's. All the functions you plotted and integrated in parts (a) through (e) above are odd functions. If f[x] is any odd function and a is any positive constant, then what is the value of #— ÌÀ f[x] dx and why? :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.1.h) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] A function f[x] is called even if f[-x] = f[x] for all x's. f[x] = xç, f[x] = xé, f[x] = Cos[x] are all examples of even functions. Plot these functions on [-1,1] and then give three more examples of even functions. Plot them on [-2,2]. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.1.h.i) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Explain why #— ÌÀ f[x] dx = 2 #…À f[x] dx provided that f[x] is an even function and a is any positive constant. :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] G.2) Calculating some integrals. :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Give the values of the following integrals; check with Mathematica . :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.2.a) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] #£ê (2x +3) ˚dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.2.b) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] #£ð (2x +3) ˚dx. Assume t > 3. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.2.c) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] #— “é (1 - x)˚ dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.2.d) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] #…é Î1ã6ã ã-ã ãxãç dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.2.e) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] #— ˋå x Î1ã ã-ã ãxãç dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.2.f) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] #— ˋå xè Î1ã ã-ã ãxãç dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.2.g) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] | #— ˋå x dx | and #— ˋå|x| dx . :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.2.h) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] #— “ç (eû - e±û) dx. :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] G.3) Plotting and integrating. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.3.a) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Plot f[x] = x (x - 1)(x - 2) for 0 ² x ² 2. Use your plot to help you to determine the value of #…ç x(x-1)(x-2) dx . :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.3.b) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Plot f[x] = Sin[x] for 0 ² x ² 2` Use your plot to help you to determine the value of #…çä Sin[x] dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.3.c) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Plot f[x] = Cos[x] for 0 ² x ² 2`. Use your plot to help you to determine the value of #…çä Cos[x] dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.3.d) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Plot f[x] = Sin[x]ç and g[x] = Cos[x]ç on the same axes for 0 ² x ² `. Use your plot to help you to determine a relationship between #…ä Sin[x]ç dx and #…ä Cos[x]ç dx . :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] G.4) The larger the function, the larger its integral. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.4.a) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Plot eŒ˛ïð½ûà and 1/(1+xê) on the same axes for 0 ² x ² 3 and use your plot to explain why #…è eŒ˛ïð½ûà dx > #…è 1/(1+xê) dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.4.b) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Explain why #Ìı f[x] dx ¬ #Ìı g[x] dx if f[x] ¬ g[x] for all x's in [a,b]. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.4.c) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Explain why 5 Log[2] ² #“ç–ê Log[x] dx < 5 Log[2 + 5]. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Hot Tip: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Look at the plot: :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] plot = Plot[{Log[2],Log[x],Log[2 + 5]},{x,2,2 + 5}, AxesLabel->{x,y},AspectRatio->Automatic, AxesOrigin->{2,0},PlotRange->{{2,2 + 5},{0,Log[2 + 5]}}]; :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.4.d) : Mean Value Theorem for Integrals :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] Suppose f'[x] ¬ 0 for all x's with a ² x ² b. Explain why f[a] (b - a) ² #Ìı f[x] dx ² f[b] (b - a). Then explain why there is some z between a and b such that #Ìı f[x] dx = f[z] (b - a). :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] G.5) Integration by approximation by trapeziods. :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Use trapezoids in the style of T.2) to get a reasonable idea of the value of the following integrals. For the smaller values of n, plot the straight-sided figures along with the curves on the same axes. Check your estimates with NIntegrate. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.5.a) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] #…ä Î1ã ã+ã ã8ã ãSãiãnã[ãxã]ãç dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.5.b) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] #— ˋé (x - 1) e±ûÄ dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.5.c) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Suppose you know that f''[x] > 0 for all x's in [a,b]. When you approximate the measurement #Ìı f[x] dx with sums of areas of trapezoids as in T.2), do the approximations overestimate or underestimate the true value of #Ìı f[x] dx? :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Tip: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; ] Experiment with some specific functions and specific values of a and b. :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] G.6) Integration of data lists. :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Sometimes the formula for a function is not available, but a reasonably complete tabulation of its values is available. This situation is common when a laboratory experiment is over and all the data are organized. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.6.a) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The following values {x[k],f[x[k]]} are known: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] {{2., 4.841}, {2.125, 4.970}, {2.25, 4.740}, {2.375, 5.504}, {2.5, 6.057}, {2.625, 7.017}, {2.75, 7.470}, {2.875, 8.232}, {3., 9.091}} :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] But the exact formula for f[x] is not known. What is your best shot at a value for #“èf[x] dx ? :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Big Tip: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] A decent response would be to connect the data points with straight line segments and then calculate the aggregate area underneath the stick figure: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] points = {{2., 4.841}, {2.125, 4.970}, {2.25, 4.740}, {2.375, 5.504},{2.5, 6.057}, {2.625, 7.017}, {2.75, 7.470}, {2.875, 8.232},{3., 9.091}} :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] pointplot = ListPlot[points, PlotStyle->{RGBColor[0,0,1],PointSize[.015]}, DisplayFunction-> Identity] :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] brokenlineplot = Graphics[Line[points]] :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Show[pointplot,brokenlineplot, AxesOrigin->{2,0},AxesLabel->{"x","y"}, PlotRange->{0,10},DisplayFunction->$DisplayFunction]; :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Now calculate the trapezoidal areas above the consecutive intervals [x[k], x[k+1]] and under the broken line segments and add. You might find it useful to pick off the y-values. The points are: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] points :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The y-value of the fourth point is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] points[[4,2]] :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.6.b) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The following values {x[k], f[x[k]]} are known: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] {{1., 0.001}, {1.083, 0.813}, {1.165, 1.570}, {1.253, 2.221}, {1.337, 2.720}, {1.416, 3.034}, {1.518, 3.141}, {1.583, 3.034}, {1.671, 2.720}, {1.752, 2.221}, {1.829, 1.570}, {1.918, 0.813}, {2., 0.002}} :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] But the exact formula for f[x] is not known. What is your best shot at a value for #ˋç f[x] dx? :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Tip: Careful; the x-coordinates of these points are not equally spaced. You can pick off the values of the various x-coordinates: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] points ={{1., 0.001}, {1.083, 0.813}, {1.165, 1.570}, {1.253, 2.221}, {1.337, 2.720}, {1.416, 3.034}, {1.518, 3.141}, {1.583, 3.034}, {1.671, 2.720}, {1.752, 2.221}, {1.829, 1.570}, {1.918, 0.813}, {2., 0.002}} :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] The x-coordinate of the third point is: :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] points[[3,1]] :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.6.c) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] How would you say that the technique used in parts a and b is related to linear interpolation? :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] G.7) Using the instruction NIntegrate. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.7.a) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Use NIntegrate to estimate the value of 4 #…幌˛ïð½çà 1/Î1ã ã-ã ãxãç dx. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.7.b) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] For t ¬ 0, set f[t] = #…ð Cos[x] dx and use NIntegrate to give a plot f[t] for 0 ² t ² `. Use your plot to guess a formula for f[t]. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.7.c) :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Plot enough of yç = xç(3 + x)/(3 - x) to discover the loop. Then use NIntegrate to calculate the area the loop encloses. :[font = special1; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Tip: :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; ] You might like the following instruction: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] ExpandAll[Solve[y^2 == (x + 3)(x^2 - x + 2 y - 3),y]] :[font = smalltext; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; ] Note that if x ¬ 0, then Î1ã2ãxãçã ã+ã ã4ã ãxãè = 2x = Î3ã ã+ã ãx. :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] G.8) The area of a strip of a circle. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; preserveAspect; ] G.8.a) :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Look at the output from: :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Integrate[Sqrt[1 - x^2],{x,0,1/2}] :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Then explain how the numbers Î3/8 and Òˋ “Òä arise as area measurements within the following graphic: :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; ] p = {1/2,Sqrt[3]/2} circle = Graphics[Circle[{0,0},1,{ArcTan[Sqrt[3]],Pi/2}]] radius = Graphics[Line[{{0,0},p}]] vertical = Graphics[Line[{{1/2,0},p}]] angle = Graphics[Circle[{0,0},.15,{0,ArcTan[Sqrt[3]]}]] anglelabel = Graphics[Text["Pi/3",{.2,.1}]] point = Graphics[{PointSize[0.015],Point[p]}] pointlabel = Graphics[Text["{1/2,Sqrt[3]/2}",{.7,Sqrt[3]/2}]] Show[circle,radius,vertical,angle,anglelabel,point,pointlabel, PlotRange->{{0,1},{0,1}},AspectRatio->Automatic, AxesOrigin->{0,0},AxesLabel->{"x","y"}]; :[font = section; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Literacy Sheet :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 1. Fix numbers a and b with a < b and fix a function f[x]. Explain what the symbol #Ìı f[x] ˚dx means. Is it a number or is it a function? :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 2. Fix numbers a and b with a < b. If f[x] ¬ 0 for a ² x ² b, then can it be that #Ìı f[x]˚dx < 0? Why? :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 3. If f[x] ² g[x] for all x's with a ² x ² b, then why it is automatic that #Ìı f[x]˚ dx ² #Ìı g[x] ˚dx? :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 4. If f[x] is an odd function, then what is the value of #— “ç f[x] dx? :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 5. Explain the formula #Ìı f[˚x˚] dx = #ÌÁ f[˚x˚] dx + #Íı f[˚x˚] dx for any number c with a < c < b. :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 6. Explain the formula #Ìı K f[˚˚x˚˚] dx = K #Ìı f[˚x˚˚] dx for any number K. :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 7. Explain the formula #Ìı f[˚˚x˚˚] dx = #Ìı f[˚˚t˚˚] dt . :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 8. What is the idea behind integration by trapezoids? :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 9. What bothers us about writing #…ç ¼Ò Ò¯ Ò—åÒˋ Ò¾ dx? :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] 10. Suppose f[x] is increasing on [a, b]. Why is is guaranteed that f[a] (b - a) ² #Ìı f[x] dx ² f[b] (b - a)? :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] 11. Explain why | #Ìı f[x] dx | ² #Ìı | f[x] | dx . Assume a ² b. ^*)